Education

It is a well known fact that education is very important. While getting through high school may seem hard it is the first step in going to university. As you look through the many brochures for universities and colleges you should try to find information about federal financial aid. This information is very helpful if you feel that you will have trouble with the needed expenses for tuition and term fees.As there are many different types of federal financial aid that you can try applying for you should take application forms and the information documents you will need for at least several. Once you have bit of uninterrupted time sit down and read these financial aid programs. You should note down any sections where you have questions that need answering. You will also need to have a look at the documents that you require in order to fill out the federal financial aid forms. These documents will be listed on the various aid application information documents. You should talk all of this information with others so that they will be able to provide you with advice.To know more about the various forms of federal financial aid you should see what information you can get from the internet. This is also an excellent way to calculate the finances you require to live, study and how much aid you can expect to get. You will need to remember that while the aid will help in paying for your educational needs, it will help if you have a way of paying this money back.The more you pay back in the federal financial aid programs the less interest you will need to worry about during the payback period. Also by paying your loan right through the entire period that you gain more credit reliability. This is better than defaulting on your loan and having to worry about facing courts, collecting agencies and other consequences.The various federal financial aid programs like FAFSA and Stafford Student Loans are ones that have well known reputations. You will find it easier to apply for a student loan from places like these. The numerous details for such aid programs are also very easy to find. Once you have looked through all of these details and application forms you will be more informed as to the choices you can make.With federal financial aid you can apply for the university of your choice. Discover how to get the most from a federal financial aid plan. You will soon be on your way to a better future.Muna wa Wanjiru is a Web Administrator and Has Been Researching and Reporting on Student Loans for Years.

When a college student needs to get a loan they will usually ask for information from their college’s financial office. From here they will be told about any student loans company they feel is of benefit to them. The many different loans companies that you will find are ones like Pell Grant, Stafford Loan, Perkins Loan and FAFSA to name a few. From these various companies you will be able to receive different information about the loans. By looking at one student loans company at a time you will be able to see the many benefits and disadvantages you may face by applying for a student loan from such a company. As you will be using this student loans company for the entire period of your education at the college or university, it is best to take some time.Hunt through the various student loans to find ones that will be suited for your education plans and living abilities. You should make enquires about what sort of conditions you will need to fulfill in order to qualify for a loan from a student loans company. Before you agree and sign any documents ask to have some time to consider the implications.Once you have reached your home look these documents over carefully. You can if you feel more comfortable make a list of the advantages and bonuses you will get from this student loans company. In making this list you will see what these terms really mean to your education.You should at this point also see about making a list of the disadvantages that are apparent in the student loans company. When you have finished this list try this procedure with the other loan information you have. At the end of this task you will know if you have any questions to ask. Also the many benefits which you will get from the student loans will be displayed.One of the better routes that you can take to get the student loan that you want is to apply for the FAFSA loan form. This form will allow you to have the eligibility to receive student loans from a variety of loan agencies. The loan companies will look through the documents which have been provided to them by FAFSA. You will then be able to receive the loan confirmation you require.With so many student loans to choose from you may feel uncertain of which one to take. The best way to select the right student loan company is to look for the various federal student loans that you can apply for. You will then have the way clear to choose which direction your education will go.Muna wa Wanjiru is a Web Administrator and Has Been Researching and Reporting on Student Loans for Years.

In my previous article ———- I wrote a brief history about the famous Gabrielle Bobeur “Coco” Chanel born August 19, 1883.
At the age of six Coco was orphaned and raised by two of her Aunts. From them she learned how to sew, and the finer things in life. She never dreamed that by listening and hard work she would grow up and earn the respect of the wealthy women around the world.
In 1914 she opened a boutique in Deauville, France. Chanel replaced the traditional corset with comfort and casual elegance of suits and dresses. When people spoke of Coco Chanel or just the mention of her name people would talk about a pair of shoes, a hat, a suit, perfume, a little black dress, jumpers, turtle neck sweaters, jewelry an entire outfit from head to toe and even the famous trench coat. She was known for her style, it was a style that no one else had every achieved. Elite women from high societies around the world would come to The House of “Chanel.” The House of Chanel became an icon.
It was like the time that Chanel cut her hair into a bob, women everywhere started to follow the trend and cut their hair into the new style known today as The Bobbed Hair style.
After the perfume No 5, Chanel’s fashions became even more known and were purchased by high flyers of London and Paris.
The year 1935 was the peak of Chanel’s career; she employed 4,000 workers and owned numerous buildings throughout France. In 1939 Chanel retired from the clothing fashion and concentrated on selling perfume and accessories in Chanel’s boutiques. In 1954 Chanel came out of retirement and reopened the couture house, with a simple but elegant quilted shoulder strap bag. Elite women wanted to get their hands on this bag but due to manufacturing time Chanel declined numerous requests to produce this bag.
Coco Chanel passed away in 1971 and Karl Lagerfeld carries on the Chanel name and style today with a few minor changes to the fashion society. The House of Chanel is best described as having the five essentials; Audacious, Perfectionist, Unique, Passionate and Visionary.
Related Articles: CHANEL Designer Articles P1

Term paper writing is one of most common requirements for an upper-division course such as one for which this book was probably assigned. Such term papers usually count for a significant part of their final grade. Up till now many, maybe most, students have never received formal instruction about how to write a good term paper. The following pages are meant to help students write an “A” paper by giving students some guidelines about how to go about their Term paper writing.
To write a term paper students must first do some term, that is, investigate their topic by reading about it in many different sources, including books, magazines, newspapers, and the Internet. In some cases students may also conduct interviews. The information students gather from these sources is then used to support the points students make in their paper.
Term paper writing also involves documenting their sources of information in footnotes or endnotes. This way the reader knows where students got their information and can judge whether it is reliable.
Why do teachers give papers? Answering this question is a good place to start thinking about term papers because if students know why papers are such a common assignment, then perhaps students can approach task with added enthusiasm and dedication.
When talking about term papers, students don’t ask, how to. What students must ask is what to. A term paper is a semester task. Some teachers prefer it as a summary work to show whether materials studied in class were first of all noted down carefully, second of all – studied well, and finally, last but not least – understood. An essay of any type, a research paper, a project – students still want to know how to write term papers? The best advice here is – take good notes during lectures. The biggest part of “how to write term papers” question will disappear once students look through their notes. They are what students are going to get their idea from if tutor assigned students general topic, or some factual help and hints on sources, if assignment is specific.
Instead of asking, how one must write term papers, go ahead and look though sources. These are typically manuals used in class and available on campus. Take assistance from librarians, use Internet, find information. Experience shows – good notes taken from studied sources also help in solving “how to write a term paper” question. Students can either write ideas down on separate cards, or mark them with a pencil. A obliging thing is to construct a kind of a term paper outline while reading. Another thing about “term papers: how to” is to write down information about used sources to avoid headaches with Bibliography. The most commonly used style for term paper writing is called “APA” and rules are described in Publication Manual of American Psychological Association.
Finally, when all ideas are assembled, write a draft. A term paper is to show their knowledge, ability to operate facts and evidence, and demonstrate understanding of material. This is why use scholarly prose, avoid impersonal nouns and be clear all way through their term paper writing.

College is generally the next step for young adults. While they may look at the different colleges and universities they have the ability of attending, there is another matter which needs to be thought of. This matter is that of paying for your entire college education. To help you out there are various avenues you can pursue. One such avenue is that of getting FAFSA financial aid.This aid is one that will help you out but there are conditions to which you must be willing to adhere to. As you look at these details you should make sure that you understand the conditions. These conditions are also applicable to your future repayment. As this is an important aspect of the FAFSA financial aid program you will need to have all of this information.Once you have this information including that of the repayment scheme it is time to take some time to reflect. Talk the information you have gotten over with others. These people will be able to advise you of any items that you might have forgotten to think about. Since this is very important you should take notes on the points you will need to have clarified.Having obtained this information you will be able to see what part of your education is covered by the FAFSA financial aid. To augment this aid you may have to work but these decisions will come after you have signed and agreed to the financial aid. There are various ways that you can apply for the financial aid you need from FAFSA. One of the ways is to fill out their online FAFSA form. You could also look for a printed copy.Read all of the conditions and terms which are given on the form. Also you will need to have someone else (your parents or guardian if you are 18 years) read the form too. This is important as the conditions which are listed in the FAFSA financial aid depend on the information that is provided by these individuals.The FAFSA financial aid program is an excellent way to help with the costs of attending university. You will however need to apply for this aid every year that you require this aid. By applying for your student aid in a timely manner you can be sure that you will have a good chance of receiving the financial aid that can help you in the term to come.There are many different ways that you can financial aid to help you with college or university. The FAFSA financial aid is a federal government approved of program. With the aid you will get from FAFSA you can start planning for your future.Muna wa Wanjiru is a Web Administrator and Has Been Researching and Reporting on Student Loans for Years.

Abstracts The modern Physics is based on the findings and thinking of the people of historical age. If no one knows the base and work of the previous on a subject, he or she could mere develop a new thought or findings. For, a civilization must know its past. Hence, the present work is a small effort to find out the contribution of ancient Arabian and Egyptian scientists in the field of Physics and Technologyy. Different scientists of different school of thought, correlating different streams of science being Physics as a main subject, are described in the present work. Key Words: Arabian and Egyptian Scientist, Physics, Technology

The Muslim scientists studied deeply the fundamental questions of physics. For instance Ibn Sina made a profound study of such phenomena as force, motion, light, heat, vacuum, etc. A great progress was made in theoretical and applied mechanics. Useful work was done in the field of mechanics on the wheel, axle, lever, pulley, inclined plane, windmill, water-wheel, toothed wheel, etc. The physicist and astronomer al-Khazini wrote a book on mechanics, hydrostatics and physics, named Kitab Mizan al-Hikmah (Book of the balance of wisdom) which is the most remarkable medieval work on these subjects. It gives a theory of the force of the attraction of the earth (gravity), according to which the universal force is directed towards the centre of the universe, which was supposed at that time to be the centre of the earth. It includes the tables of specific gravity of many liquids and solids (based on the work of al-Biruni), and a history of the subject; the gravity of air; observations on capillarity; the use of aerometer for the measurement of densities and the appreciation of the temperature of liquids; the theory of lever; the application of balance to leveling and to the measurement of time. The analysis and extracts of this book have been published in Arabic and English. (1)

In another book on balance al-Khazini stresses the need to remove, as far as possible, the influences of temperature variation during weighing. When al-Khazini’s other studies are considered, he seems to be a precursor of Galileo.

Al-Khazini’s full name was Abu’l Fath ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Mansur al-Khazini (or al-Khazin). He flourished about 1115—1121. He was a Greek (Rumi) slave. His master ‘Ali al-Khazin àl-Marwazi arranged for his good scientific and philosophical education in Marw. Al-Khäzin Compiled the astronomical tables called al-Zij al-Mu’tabar al-Sinjari (The esteemed Sinjaric Tables) which were named after Sinjar Ibn Malikshah Ibn Alp Arsalãn, governor and later Sultan of Khurasän (1097—98 to 1157—58). They give the position of the stars for the year 1115—1116.

Before al-Khazini, Umar al-Khayyam did the greatest work on the balance. Ibn Sina and al-Razi contributed to the theory of the balance. Banü Müsä (the sons of Musä), who flourished during the reign of the Caliph al-Ma’mun, wrote many mechanical works. An important work on the balance called Farastün’ or ‘Qarastun is ascribed to them. Al-Räzi (d. 923—24) made investigations on specific gravity by using the hydrostatic balance. This balance was called al-Mizan al-Tabi’i (the physical balance). (2)

Muhammad Ibn ‘Ali Ibn Rustam al-Khurasani was a famous constructor of clocks and, therefore, he was called al-Sa’ati (the clock maker). Between 1146 and 1169, he constructed a clock placed in the Bab Jairün. (often called ‘Bab al-Sa’ah, the door of the clock). Al-Sa’äti remained in charge of his clock until his death in 1184—85. (3)

Another Muslim mechanician of the 13th century was Abu’l-Isa Ismã’il Ibn Razzãz (the son of rice merchant) Badi’al-Zamàn al-Jazari. He was patronized from 577—578 to 601—602 A.H. 1181—1182 to 1205—1206 A.C.,by the Urtuqid rulers of Diyar Bakr, a district of al-Jazirah. He wrote a treatise on the knowledge of the geometrical mechanical contrivances entitled Kitab fi Ma’rifat al-Hiyal al-Handsiyyah, which was dedicated to the Urtuqid Nasir al-Din Mahmüd (ruled from 1200 to 1222). It deals mainly with hydraulic apparatus (elepsydras, fountains, etc.). This important work is interesting from the technical point of view, and represents the best Arabic work on applied mechanics. It is divided into six parts. The first part which deals with the various types of the elepsydras indicating either equal or temporal hours is the most important. Muslims divided the day into twenty-four equal hours. But they adopted another type of division. They divided the day and night each into twelve hours of varying length according to the season. Such type of hours were also used by the Christians in Europe e.g., Italy, until the middle of the 18th century.

The book was translated into German, and commentaries on it were also written. (4)

Al-Sä’ãti’s son Ridwän repaired and improved the clock, and also wrote a book to describe its construction and use. This book is an important source of the study of early Muslim clocks. Ridwan was a mechanician, physician and poet, and had knowledge of literature and music. He played the flute. Originally he belonged to Khurasan. He was appointed as wazir by the Ayyubi prince al-Faiz Ibrahim and his brother al-Mu’azzam Isã. Ridwan also wrote a supplement to Ibn Sinà’s treatise on grapes, and a commentary on his Qanün (Canon). (5)

Qaisar Ibn Abu‘l-Qasim, the Egyptian mathematician, astronomer (d. 1251 A.C.) made a celestial globe. He probably made improvements on the water-wheels or water-mills. Such improved types of water-wheels are still seen on the Orontes, and are among the glories of Hama. He constructed these water-wheels (naura) for al-Muzzaffar al-Taqi al-Din Mahmud, the ruler of Hama from 1229 to 1244 A.C. (6)

The philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi refuted the existence of a vacuum. He wrote a remarkable essay on the elasticity of the air. It is an original piece of research. (7)

The Muslim scientists took interest in the determination of the specific gravity of various substances. Sanad Ibn ‘Ali, a scientist of the ninth century made investigations on specific gravity. Al-Biruni determined the specific gravity of 18 precious stones and metals. Ibn Sinã and al-Rãzi also made research on this subject.

Ibn Yunus (d. 1009 A.C.) applied the pendulum to the measurement of time. Al-Biruni devised a time machine based on the Roman calendar. He constructed it for use in the mosque of Ghazna. But the Imam of the mosque rejected it saying that it was based on a non-Muslim work. At this Al-Biruni was very much annoyed. He said that the, determination of time is a purely secular matter. It is, therefore, of little value whether it is based on a Muslim calendar or a non-Muslim one. Only convenience should be taken into consideration.

Al-Biruni made reference to a certain kind of wells which are obtained by boring the earth to that level of water which is submitted to the hydrostatic pressure in which case due to the pressure water is driven upward as in the natural springs. He correctly explains the action of such wells by the principle of communicating vessels. (8)

The Muslims developed the techniques of bathing. They constructed the hot, steam bath called Hammäm (from the Arabic root Hamm meaning to heat). When the European Crusaders came to the East and experienced the comforts of these baths, they introduced them into their own countries.

The Muslims were the first to apply the directive property of the magnetic needle to the determination of the direction of the
ir journey while traveling on sea. The Chinese were the first to discover this property. The maritime trade between the Muslims gave much importance to the southern end of the needle than the northern one as it is done these days. This was probably because in some places like Syria and Asia Minor the southern end pointed roughly towards Makkah. Thus this end of the needle gave the general direction of the Qiblah. In the West the compass was first of all used by the Italian sailors. Some Muslims have referred to the compass in their writings. For instance, Bailak al-Qabajaqi in his book entitled Kanz al-Ahjär described the use of a floating compass witnessed by him in l242—43. (9)

‘The Muslims were also the first to invent guns and cannons and use explosive material in them. The purpose of this invention was to throw bullets at the enemy from a long distance. The Chinese used sodium nitrate only. But the penetrating power of explosives was discovered and made use of only by Muslims. The historians generally write that first of all guns were used in the war of Cressi, but from the writings of many Muslims it is revealed that guns had been used a long time ago. In one of these writings there is a story that some ruler named Ya’qüb besieged in 602 A.H. (1205 A.C.) an African town Mehdra which was under the control of his chief rebel, and attacked the walls with the help of sounding guns and machines. From every machine there came out a number of showers of big stones and fire balls.

The statement given by Ibn Khaldün in his ‘History of Berbers’ also proves the use of the guns at the time of war. He writes “Abu Yusuf, the Sultan of Morocco besieged in 672 A.H. (1273 A.C.) the city of Sijilmasa. He installed the instruments for besiege in front of the city. These instruments consisted of Manjneeq, Urawe and Handam with which the bits of iron were thrown. These bits were filled in the box of Handam, and the explosives kept behind them were set on fire. Its effect was strange and its results could be called an act of Allah. One day with the help of a stone thrown by Manjneeq, part of the wall fell, and from there the attack was made on the city. (10)

The Muslims developed the science of optics. Ibn al-Haitham (Latin Alhazen) made a remarkable contribution towards this science. Indeed modern optics began with him. Before Ibn al-Haitham it was generally thought by the Greek, Roman and Muslim scientists that rays are emitted from the eyes towards the objects seen. Plato suggested that there was another set of rays which emitted from the object seen. Alexandrians believed that the vision lies in the lens of the eye. Ibn Sina and al-Biruni also believed that the ray went from the object to the eye. Aristotle’s ideas were very near to modern conception. The atomists put forward an atomical theory. Hunain Ibn Ishãq in his work entitled “Questions on the eye’ put forward a theory which was somewhat like that of Plato. In his opinion the lens was the central organ of vision. Both the visual force coming from the brain and the image of the object coming from without were received in the lens. Al-Razi, too, in his monograph on the nature of vision showed that the eyes do not radiate light. (11)

Ibn al-Haitham changed the traditional view by putting forward the theory that the objects are seen by rays passing from them towards the eye and not by the opposite process. Most of his successors did not agree with his view, but Al-Birüni and Ibn Sina independently and fully agreed with him. Ibn al-Haitham solved a number of optical, problems on the basis of the mathematical knowledge of his day.

Ibn al-Haitham dealt with such a medley of topics as the structure of the eye, optical illusion, perspective, binocular vision, vision of outlines, shadows and colours, the ancient catoptrics and dioptrics with new developments, camera obscura, Alhazen’s problem, mirages, comets, the Milky Way, rainbows, halos, etc.

Ibn al-Haitham conducted research catoptrics which contains the problem known Alhazen’s problem. It is as follows:- ‘From two points in the plane of a circle to draw lines meeting at a point of the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point’. This leads, to an equation, of the fourth degree. Ibn al-Haitham solved it by the help of an hyperbola intersecting a circle. He also solved the so-called al-Mahani’s cubic equation.

Ibn al-Haitham showed a marked progress in experimental techniques. He made research on spherical and parabolic mirrors; spherical aberration and dioptrics. He noticed that the ratio between the angles of incidence and reflection does not remain constant. He described the magnifying power of a lens and studied atmospheric refraction. He stated that the twilight only ceases or begins when the Sun is 19° below the horizon, and tried to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He gave a better description of the eye and vision. He tried to explain, binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in the size of the sun and the moon near the horizon. He gave the first mathematical treatment of the ‘camera obscura’.

Thus he deals with the problems which now come under at least seven subjects including anatomy, physiology, psychology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and meteorology.

The full name of Ibn al-Haitham is Abu ‘Ali Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Ibn al-Haitham. He was a native of Basra and was born in 354 A.H. (965 A.C.). He migrated to Egypt where he lived till his death. He was a noble person and a genius who had the knowledge of many sciences. He was the greatest mathematician of his age and one of the greatest opticians in history. He was also well versed in medicine and Arabic language. When the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah, who was very fond of philosophy, heard about Ibn al-Haitham, he had a great desire to see him. Al-Häkim was informed that Ibn al-Haitham had disclosed that if he had been in Egypt, he might have done something in connection with the river Nile, so that it would become beneficial in every case, whether the level of water was high or low. According to Ibn al-Haitham, the river water fell from a high place lying in the territory of Egypt. Hearing this report Al-Hakim became more fond of meeting Ibn al-Haitham .Al-Hãkim sent a great amount of money to him, and persuaded him to come to his court. Ibn al-Haitham left for Egypt. When he reached near Cairo al-Hakim went to receive him. They met in a village near Bàb al-Qahirah (the gate of Cairo). Al-Hakim honored him, provided him with all the facilities, and asked him to fulfill his promise regarding the river Nile. A group of workers was provided to help him in executing his plan. When Ibn al-Haitham made the survey of the site and came to a place called ‘Janadil’ (now called Shaläl), which lies near Aswan on an elevated ground, he realized the difficulties involved. Finding himself unable to fulfill his promise, he became very ashamed, Now he feared al-Hàkim and to get rid of him he acted as a mad man, and remained in the condition of madness until the death of al-Hãkim. Then he came to his senses and settled in Qubbah near the gate of Jami’ah al-Azhar, and engaged himself in writing books. He died in 1038.

Ibn al-Haitham is the author of many works. He summarized Aristotle’s works, and wrote commentaries on them. He also summarized many medical works of Galen. His writings on mathematics and physics are 15 and on metaphysics and physics are 44 in number. His books include the one on plants and one on the properties of simple and Compound drugs. (12)

His kitab al-Manazir (the optical thesau
rus), is one of the leading classics which influenced scientific thought for more than six centuries. The Latin, Muslim and Hebrew writers such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham, Witelo, Ahmad Ibn Idris al-Qarafi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirãzi, Levi Ben Gerson based their works on this great book.

Ibn Sinã made a deep study of light. He observed that if light is emitted due to the ejection of some sort of particles by the luminous source, the speed of light must be finite. (13) Al-Biruni noticed that the speed of light is immensely greater than that of the sound. (14)

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi wrote two books on Optics. One of them, is entitled Al-Mabahith fi In‘ikãs al-Shu‘a‘at wa In‘itafiha (Research on the reflection and refraction of rays), contains a proof of the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection.

The other is entitled ‘Tahrir kitab al-Manãzir. In the preface the author remarks that one perceive objects because of the light rays emanating from them, but that everything happens as if the rays emanated from our eyes. (15)

Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, (d. 1311) who was one of the greatest scientist of all times presented his views on Optics in his astronomical works. In one of such works, entitled ‘Nihãyat al-Idrãk fi Dirãyat al-Aflak(Highest understanding of the knowledge of the Spheres); he discusses questions of geometrical optics, the nature of vision, and finally the rainbow. He was the first to give a satisfactory account of the rainbow. His explanation of the rainbow is based on his study of the passage of a ray of light through a transparent sphere (drop of water). He discovered that the rainbow is formed when the rays are refracted twice and reflected once (or tunice in the case of the secondary rainbow) in the humid atmosphere. (16)

Another, important physicist and mathematician of the 14th century, was Kamal al-Din Abu’l- Hasan al-Farisi. He wrote a book entitled ‘Tanqih al-Manazir (Correction of optics) which is an elaborate and original commentary on Ibn al-Haitham’s Kitäb al-Manãzir (the book of optics). It covers not only physical and physiological optics, but also meteorology, perspective and many other subjects. It includes remarks on serial perspective, colour effects, etc.

Kamal al-Din suggested the use, of hyperboloidal lenses in order to avoid spherical aberration. He gave an account of the refraction of light. According to George Sarton, this account implies the following facts; the speed of light is finite but very great; the speed of light in different media is inversely proportional to the optical density (not the same as the material density). The second of these facts seems to be an adumbration of the wave theory of light as against the corpuscular theory.

Kamãl al-Din performed a number of experiments on camera obscura and improved its use initiated by Ibn al-Haitham. He showed that the images obtained on a screen in a dark room by means, of the rays of light passing through a narrow hole, are independent of the shape of the ho1e, and that the smaller the hole, the sharper the images. It was also proved that the images of many objects are formed separately on the screen, but the images and the directions were reversed. With the help of the camera he observed eclipses and the movements of the clouds and birds. (17)

Al-Hasan al-Rammah (the lancer) Najm al- Din al-Ahadab (the hunchback) wrote on military subjects. He flourished in Syria. He wrote two treatises on horsemanship and the art of war, (1) Kitab al-Furusiyah wa’l Munasab al-Harbiyah (Horsemanship and war stratagems), (2) Nihayat al-Su’ul wa’l ‘Umniya fi Ta’allum al-A’mal al-Furusiyah.

The first treatise deals with the military matters such as the military operation, means of using lances, bows, siege engines, and the method of fighting at sea and the communication of fire etc. It contains various pyrotechnic recipes; Al-Hasan considered saltpeter the fundamental substance of pyrotechnics. He explained the methods of preparing and purifying it by means of potash and of repeated crystallizations.

In the opinion of George Sarton, that is more important than it may seem, for the impurities of saltpeter are hygroscopic, and thus tend to destroy its value. To discover saltpeter and its uses was one thing, to purify it was another. (18)

The Muslims improved the art of shipbuilding, taught Mediterranean seamen to construct lighter sailing-ships or caravels (garaf), to caulk their boats with tar still known in Romance languages by the Arabic name of gatran (Fr goudron, It. caltrame)—to handle sails and cables (Ar. habl). (19)
REFERENCES :- 1. A1-Khazini, ‘Abd al-Rahmän, ‘Mizan al-Hikmah, Hyderabad Deccan, 1359 A.H. pp. 1—170. 2. Al-Qifti, ‘Ali Ibn Yüsuf, Tarikh al-Hukama, Leipzig, 1903, p. 271. 3. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carneige Institution of Washington, 1951, Vol. I, p. 632. 4. Ibid., p. 631. 5. Ibid., 632. 6. Ibid., vol. II, Part II, p. 623. 7. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 277. 8. Sarton, op. cit., vol. I, p. 707. 9. Ibid., Vol. II, Part I, p. 24. 10. Balgirami, ‘Ali, Tamaddun-e-Arab, (Urdu translation of a French work by Lebon), Hyderabad Deccan, p. 441. 11. Ibid., vol I, p. 609. 12. Ibid., p. 721. 13 Isma’il Basha al-Baghdadi, Hadiyyah al-Arifin, Istanbul, 1951, Vol. II, p. 66. 14. Sarton, op.cit., p. 707. 15. Ibid., p. 709-713. 16. Ibid. vol. II, Part, II, p. 1009. 17. Ibid.,p. 1018. 18. Ibid., Vol III, part I p. 707. Al-Fárisi, Kamál al-Din, Tãnqih al-Manazir, Hyderabad Decean, India. 19. Sarton op. cit., Vol. II, Part II, p. 1039. 20. Briffault, Dr. Robert, The Making of Humanity, Islamic Book Foundation, 1980, p. 205.

In the good old old days, games are just a way of getting family together to pass time. However, recent experiments had led to surprising discoveries.
In the 1960s a neuro-anatomist by the name of Maria Diamond and her fellow researchers at the University of California, Berkeley found that rats playing with toys – object that can be tossed, sniffed or chewed at, learned to traverse mazes better than others that were confined to their cages. When she checked their brains, she found out that the ones that were given toys to play with had a significantly thicker cerebral cortex – the part of brain largely responsible for thinking.
Based on this experiment, these researchers believe that people who challenges their mind will be able to build reserve brainpower that will be useful as they get older.
In another test, scientists also discovered that game playing also helps students with other kind of learning. Stuart Margulies, a New York psychologist had showed in his experiment that kids aged eight to nine who played chess for more than half an hour a day performed better than those who do not in their reading tests.
In University of Wisconsin, scientist even admit that video games could also be useful for the brain. Experiments conducted by James Gee, a professor of learning sciences believe that there are some cognitive benefits of playing games: pattern recognition, system thinking, even patience. He also concluded that gaming can exercise the mind the way physical activity exercises the body:
Although the above experiment seemed to be useful as an excuse for video gamers out there, most scientists and psychologist believe there are some problems with pc or video games. They believe these games lack nonverbal cues and digression compared to the traditional board games. The board games they believe help build healthy relationship, provide a sense of companionship as well as contributing to social intelligence.
The board games suggested for students are games that can stimulate their thinking process as well as one that involves face to face interaction with others. Games like chess, monopoly and other similar genre games are considered perfect choices. Apart from such games, scientists also believe that crossword puzzles, brain twisters or bridge tournaments can also help one toughen the brain cells.
So, what are you waiting for? Switch off your first person shooting game and start looking for your old monopoly board and start playing to get your brain into tip-top shape.
——- Students, get pumped up with inspirational quotes for students as well as inspirational goal quotes to achieve success in life!

General review of the history of medicine
Herbalism There is no actual record of when the use of plants for medicinal purposes first started, although the first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents were depicted in the cave paintings discovered in the Lascaux caves in France, which have been Radiocarbon dated to between 13,000 – 25,000 B.CE. Over time and with trial and error, a small base of knowledge was acquired within early tribal communities. As this knowledge base expanded over the generations, tribal culture developed into specialized areas. These ‘specialized jobs’ became what are now known as healers or Shaman.

Egyptian Medicine Medical information contained in the Edwin Smith Papyrus date as early as 3,000 B.C. The earliest surgery was performed in Egypt around 2,750 B.C. Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is credited as the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and as the original author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus, detailing cures, ailment and anatomical observations. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written circa 1,600 B.C as an ancient textbook on surgery and describes in exquisite detail in the examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of numerous ailment.
Medical institutions are known to have established in ancient Egypt since as early as the 1st Dynasty. By the time of the 19th Dynasty their employees enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions, sick leave and worked eight hours per day. The earliest known physician is also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesrye, ìChief of Dentists and Physicianì for King Djoser in the 27th century B.C. Also the earliest women physician, Peseshet, practiced in Ancient Egypt at the time of the 4th dynasty. Her title was ìLady Overseer of the Lady Physicians. Chinese Medicine Chinese also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. During the golden age of his reign from 2,696 to 2,598 B.C, as a result of a dialogue with his minister, Ch’I Pai, the Yellow Emperor is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his Neijing Suwen or Basic Questions of Internal Medicine.
During the Han dynasty, Chang Chung-Ching, who was mayor of Chang-sha near the end of the second century A.D, wrote a Treatise on Typhoid Fever, which contains the earliest known reference to Neijing Suwen. The Chin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huang-fu Mi (215-282 A.D), also quotes the Yellow Emperor in his Chia I Ching, 265 A.D. During the Tang dynasty, Wang Ping claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the Neijing Suwen, which he expanded and edited substancially.
Early European Medicine Astrology played a very important part in early Western medicine; most university-educated physicians were trained in at least the basics of astrology to use in their practice. As societies developed in Europe and Asia, belief systems were replaced with a different natural system. The Greeks, from Hyppocrates, developed a humoral medicine system where treatment was to restore the balance of humours within the body. Ancient Medicine is a treatise on medicine, written roughly 400 B.C by Hyppocrates.
Medieval medicine was an evolving mixture of the scientific and the spiritual. In the early middle ages, following the fall off the Roman Empire, standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere.
Islamic Medicine The Islamic World rose to primacy in medical science with such thinkers as Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Nafis and Rhazes. The first generation of Persian superb physicians were trained at the Academy of Gundishapur, where the teaching hospital was the first invented. The Comprehensive Book of Medicine (Large Comprehensive, Hawi or “al-Hawi” or “The Continence”) was written by the Iranian chemist Rhazes (known also as Razi), the “Large Comprehensive” was the most sought after of all his compositions. The “Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah” by Rhazes, with its introduction on measles and smallpox was also very influential in Europe.
The Mutazilite philosopher and doctor Ibn Sina was another influential figure. His The Canon of Medicine, sometimes considered the most famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text in Europe up until its Age of Enlightenment and the renewal of the Islamic tradition of scientific medicine. Ibn Nafis described human blood circulation. This discovery would be rediscovered or perhaps merely demonstrated, by William Harvey in 1628, who generally receives the credit in Western history.
Modern Medicine Medicine was revolutionized in the 18th century and beyond by advances in chemistry and laboratory techniques and equipment, old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were replaced with bacteriology. Ignaz Semmelweis in 1847 dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from childbed fever by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. His discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, his discoveries were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries of British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antiseptic.
His work is based on the very important discoveries made by French biologist Louis Pasteur who was able to link some microorganisms with disease. This brought a revolution in medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced the vaccine against rabies. Pasteur also invented the process of pasteurization to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods, whom it’s named after. Also Pasteur was an individual worker, an unlike his contemporary Robert Koch, regardless, Pasteur was a man who thought laterally and his vaccination for Rabies, was indeed a milestone, but no one still understood in the 1880s the mechanisms for such immunity.
The role of womankind was increasingly founded by the likes of Elizabeth Blackwell, Elizabeth Garret, Florence Nightingale, etc. They showed a previously a male dominated profession, the elemental role of nursing in lessening the aggravation of patient mortality, resulting from lack of hygiene and nutrition. Nightingale, set up the St Thomas hospital, post-Crimea, in 1852. Robert Koch is considered one of the founders of bacteriology. He is famous for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus (1883) and for his development of Koch’s postulates. It was not until the 20th century that there was a true breakthrough in medicine, with great advances in pharmacology and surgery. For the great war spurred the usage of Rontgen’s X-ray and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily problems.
However, this was overshadowed by the remarkable mass production of penicillium antibiotic, which was a result of government and public pressure. The antibiotic prevented the deaths of thousands during the conquest of Vichy France in 1944. The 20th century witnessed a shift from a master-apprentice paradigm of teaching of clinical medicine to a more “democratic” system of medical schools.
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Research has shown that cognitive skills are a determining factor of an individual’s learning ability. Cognitive skills are mental skills that are used in the process of acquiring knowledge; according to Oxfordlearning.com the skills that “separate the good learners from the so-so learners.” In essence, when cognitive skills are strong, learning is fast and easy. When cognitive skills are weak, learning becomes a struggle.
Many children become frustrated and find schoolwork difficult because they do not have the cognitive skills required to process information properly. Many employees find themselves stuck in dead-end jobs that do not tap into their true vocational potential due to weak cognitive skills. In the later years of life, a lack of cognitive skills — poor concentration, the inability to focus, and memory loss — is a common problem that accompanies us.
It should be noted that, irrespective of age, cognitive skills can be improved with the right training. Weak cognitive skills can be strengthened, and normal cognitive skills can be enhanced to increase ease and performance in learning.
The following cognitive skills are the most important:
CONCENTRATION
Concentration is the ability to focus the attention on one single thought or subject, excluding everything else from the field of awareness. It is one of the most important abilities one should possess, as nothing great can be achieved without it.
Students need to concentrate and focus on completing a homework assignment, a project, or review for a test in order to excel in school, learn the subject, and get good grades. Athletes need to concentrate on performance, execution, and strategy in order to do their best and overcome their opponent. Entrepreneurs need to concentrate on all the factors involved in starting a new business and promoting their product or service. They need to do this in order to get their idea off the ground and make their enterprise into a profitable entity. Business leaders need to concentrate on their company mission, vision, and strategies, as well as the work at hand, in order to stay ahead of their competitors. Workers need to concentrate on their jobs and fulfilling their supervisor’s goals, in order to complete projects and advance in their careers.
Improving the ability to concentrate allows a person to avoid the problems, embarrassment, and difficulties that occur when the mind wanders. Better concentration makes studying easier and speeds up comprehension. It enables one to take advantage of the social and business opportunities that arise when individuals are fully attuned to the world around them. It helps one to focus on one’s goals and achieve them more easily.
PERCEPTION
Sensation is the pickup of information by our sensory receptors, for example the eyes, ears, skin, nostrils, and tongue. In vision, sensation occurs as rays of light are collected by the two eyes and focused on the retina. In hearing, sensation occurs as waves of pulsating air are collected by the outer ear and transmitted through the bones of the middle ear to the cochlear nerve.
Perception, on the other hand, is the interpretation of what is sensed. The physical events transmitted to the retina may be interpreted as a particular color, pattern, or shape. The physical events picked up by the ear may be interpreted as musical sounds, a human voice, noise, and so forth.
Lack of experience may cause a person to misinterpret what he has sensed. In other words, perception represents our apprehension of a present situation in terms of our past experiences, or, as stated by the philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): “We see things not as they are but as we are.”
Deficits in visual perception can hinder a person’s ability to make sense of information received through the eyes, while deficits in auditory perception interferes with an individual’s ability to analyze or make sense of information received through the ears.
A classic example of a deficit in visual perception is the child who confuses letters such as b, d, p and q. Many adults find their reading speed to be inadequate as a result of underlying perceptual deficits.
By improving accuracy and speed of perception, one is able to absorb and process information accurately and quickly. Reading speed will also improve and reading problems can be overcome.
MEMORY
Memory is probably the most important of all cognitive functions.
Roughly speaking, the sensory register concerns memories that last no more than about a second or two. If a line of print were flashed at you very rapidly, say, for one-tenth of a second, all the letters you can visualize for a brief moment after that presentation constitute the sensory register.
When you are trying to recall a telephone number that was heard a few seconds earlier, the name of a person who has just been introduced, or the substance of the remarks just made by a teacher in class, you are calling on short-term memory, or working memory. This lasts from a few seconds to a minute; the exact amount of time may vary somewhat. You need this kind of memory to retain ideas and thoughts as you work on problems. In writing a letter, for example, you must be able to keep the last sentence in mind as you compose the next. To solve an arithmetic problem like (3 X 3) + (4 X 2) in your head, you need to keep the intermediate results in mind (i.e., 3 X 3 = 9) to be able to solve the entire problem.
A poor short-term memory may lead to difficulties in processing, understanding and organization. By improving one’s short-term memory, one is better able to process, understand and organize incoming information.
Long-term memory is the ability to store information and later retrieve it, and lasts from a minute or so to weeks or even years. From long-term memory you can recall general information about the world that you learned on previous occasions, memory for specific past experiences, specific rules previously learned, and the like.
Research has shown that, on average, within 24 hours one forgets 80% of what one has learned. By improving long-term memory schoolchildren and students are able to store and retrieve information more effectively.
Visual memory is a person’s ability to remember what he has seen, while auditory memory is a person’s ability to remember what he has heard. Various researchers have stated that as much as eighty percent of all learning takes place through the eye. Needless to say, improving visual memory will have a tremendous effect on a person’s learning ability. The same is true of improving auditory memory.
LOGICAL THINKING
Logical thinking is a learned process in which one uses reasoning consistently to arrive at a conclusion. Problems or situations that involve logical thinking call for structure, for relationships between facts, and for chains of reasoning that “make sense.”
According to Dr. Albrecht, author of “Brain Building”, the basis of all logical thinking is sequential thought. This process involves taking the important ideas, facts, and conclusions involved in a problem and arranging them in a chain-like progression that takes on a meaning in and of itself. To think logically is to think in steps.
The ability to think logically allows a person to reject quick and easy answers, such as “I don’t know,” or “this is too difficult,” by empowering him to delve deeper into his thinking processes and understand better the methods used to arrive at a solution. It has been shown that training in logical thinking processes makes a person brighter.
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Visit Susan’s website A 2 Z of Learning for information on Audiblox and Compublox, two cognitive enhancement programs, designed to improve concentration, perception, memory, and logical thinking.
This article can be freely used as long as a link to “A 2 Z of Learning” (http://www.learninginfo.org) is provided.

The Federal Stafford Loan is a financial aid program that can help you out with difficulties. There are many benefits for students and families who apply for this loan. As the loan is approved by the federal government you can be sure of getting good help and advice about the various terms and benefits you can expect to get.Since the Federal Stafford Student loan is a low cost loan it is very popular with many prospective students. The College Board which supervises this student loan also offers a subsidized and unsubsidized Stafford loans. There are differences in both of these loan plans. You will be able to find all of these differences when you check out the details about the Federal Stafford Student Loan program. In the first place you should understand that while this student loan can help you out of difficulties it is best to have a way of paying back this loan other wise you will face serious consequences for having defaulted on your student loan.So having said all of this how can you apply successfully for a Federal Stafford Loan? Well the first step to getting this loan is a to fill out and submit a FAFSA form. Once you have received the financial aid award letter you now that you are on the right track. This letter will state that you are eligible to get financial aid from the Federal Stafford Loan.Once you have gotten this letter you will need to have your Master Promissory Note (MPN) filled out. You should then contact a lender where you will agree to the terms of the loan. You are also promising that at the end of your loan period you will pay the loan back on time and entirely. As soon as all of these steps have been completed you can choose which of the Federal Stafford Loan routes you wish to take. While there is not that much of a difference between the two it is really a matter of preference. You could decide to use the Subsidized Stafford Loan. In this loan the federal government will pay the interest for you. In the Unsubsidized Federal Stafford Loan you will need to pay the interest. The interest rate for this loan is a fixed rate. You will also have a 10 year period in which you can repay your entire loan plus the interest back. So why wait check out the Federal Stafford Loan and see how it can help you. Muna wa Wanjiru is a Web Administrator and Has Been Researching and Reporting on Student Loans for Years.